The earliest burials of nobles can be traced back to the First Dynasty, at the north side of the Saqqara plateau. During this time, the royal burial ground was at Abydos. The first royal burials at Saqqara, comprising underground galleries, date to the Second Dynasty. The last Second Dynasty king Khasekhemwy was buried in his tomb at Abydos, but also built a funerary monument at Saqqara consisting of a large rectangular enclosure, known as Gisr el-Mudir. It probably inspired the monumental enclosure wall around the Step Pyramid complex. Djoser's funerary complex, built by the royal architect Imhotep, further comprises a large number of dummy buildings and a secondary mastaba (the so-called 'Southern Tomb'). French architect and Egyptologist Jean-Philippe Lauer spent the greater part of his life excavating and restoring Djoser's funerary complex.
[edit]
Early Dynastic monuments
tomb of king Hotepsekhemwy
tomb of king Nynetjer
Buried Pyramid, funerary complex of king Sekhemkhet
Gisr el-Mudir, funerary complex of king Khasekhemwy
Step Pyramid, funerary complex of king Djoser
Funerary complex of Djoser
[edit]
Old Kingdom
Nearly all Fourth Dynasty kings chose a different location for their pyramids. During the second half of the Old Kingdom, under the Fifth and Sixth Dynasties, Saqqara was again the royal burial ground. The Fifth and Sixth Dynasty pyramids are not built of massive stone, but with a core consisting of rubble. They are consequently less well preserved than the world famous pyramids built by the Fourth Dynasty kings at Giza. Unas, the last ruler of the Fifth Dynasty, was the first king to adorn the chambers in his pyramid with Pyramid Texts. It was custom for courtiers during the Old Kingdom to be buried in mastaba tombs close to the pyramid of their king. Clusters of private tombs were thus formed in Saqqara around the pyramid complexes of Unas and Teti.
[edit]
Old Kingdom monuments
Mastabet el-Fara'un, tomb of king Shepseskaf (Dynasty 4)
pyramid complex of king Userkaf (Dynasty 5)
Haram el-Shawaf, pyramid complex of king Djedkare
pyramid of king Menkauhor
mastaba of Ti
mastaba of the Two Brothers (Khnumhotep and Niankhkhnum)
pyramid complex of king Unas
mastaba of Ptahhotep
pyramid complex of king Teti (Dynasty 6)
mastaba of Mereruka
mastaba of Kagemni
Mastaba of Akhethetep
pyramid complex of king Pepi I
pyramid complex of king Merenre
pyramid complex of king Pepi II
[edit]
First Intermediate Period monuments
pyramid of king Ibi (Dynasty 8)
[edit]
Middle Kingdom
From the Middle Kingdom onwards, Memphis was no longer the capital of the country, and kings built their funerary complexes elsewhere. Few private monuments from this period have been found at Saqqara.
[edit]
Second Intermediate Period monuments
pyramid of king Khendjer (Dynasty 13)
pyramid of an unknown king
[edit]
New Kingdom
During the New Kingdom Memphis was an important administrative and military centre, second only to the capital. From the Eighteenth Dynasty onwards many high officials built tombs at Saqqara. When still a general, Horemheb built a large tomb here, though he was later buried as Pharaoh in the Valley of the Kings at Thebes. Other important tombs belong to the vizier Aperel and to Maia, the wet-nurse of Tutankhamun.
Many monuments from earlier periods were still standing, but dilapidated by this period. Prince Khaemweset, son of Pharaoh Ramesses II, made repairs to buildings at Saqqara. Among other things, he restored the Pyramid of Unas and added an inscription to its south face to commemorate the restoration. He enlarged the Serapeum, the burial site of the mummified Apis bulls, and was later buried in the catacombs. The Serapeum, containing one undisturbed interment of an Apis bull and the tomb of Khaemweset, were rediscovered by the French Egyptologist Auguste Mariette.
[edit]
New Kingdom monuments
Several clusters of tombs of high officials, among which the tombs of Horemheb and of Maya and Merit. Reliefs and statues from these two tombs are on display in the National Museum of Antiquities at Leiden, the Netherlands, and in the British Museum, London.
[edit]
After the New Kingdom
In the periods after the New Kingdom, when several cities in the Delta served as capital of Egypt, Saqqara remained in use as a burial ground for nobles. Moreover the area became an important destination for pilgrims to a number of cult centres. Activities sprang up around the Serapeum, and extensive underground galleries were cut into the rock as burial sites for large amounts of mummified ibises, baboons, cats, dogs, and falcons.
[edit]
Monuments of the Late Period, the Graeco-Roman and later periods
Several shaft tombs of officials of the Late Period.
Serapeum (the larger part dating to the Ptolemaeic Period)
The so-called 'Philosophers circle', a monument to important Greek thinkers and poets, consisting of statues of Hesiod, Homer, Pindar, Plato, and others (Ptolemaeic)
Several Coptic monasteries, among which the Monastery of Apa Jeremias (Byzantine and Early Islamic Periods
9/26/2011
Saqqara
Saqqara (or Sakkara, Saqqarah; Arabic: سقارة) is a vast, ancient burial ground in Egypt, serving as the necropolis for the Ancient Egyptian capital, Memphis. Saqqara features numerous pyramids, including the world famous Step pyramid of Djoser, sometimes referred to as the Step Tomb due to its rectangular base, as well as a number of mastabas. Located some 30 km (19 mi) south of modern-day Cairo, Saqqara covers an area of around 7 by 1.5 km (4.3 by 0.93 mi).
At Saqqara, the oldest complete stone building complex known in history was built: Djoser's step pyramid, built during the third dynasty. Another 16 Egyptian kings built pyramids at Saqqara, which are now in various states of preservation or dilapidation. High officials added private funeral monuments to this necropolis during the entire pharaonic period. It remained an important complex for non-royal burials and cult ceremonies for more than 3,000 years, well into Ptolemaic and Roman times.
North of the area known as Saqqara lies Abusir; south lies Dahshur. The area running from Gaza to Dahshur has been used as necropolis by the inhabitants of Memphis at different times, and it has been designated as a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 1979.[1]
Contrary to popular belief, the name Saqqara is not derived from the ancient Egyptian funerary god Sokar, but from the Beni Saqqar who are a local Berber tribe. Their name means "Sons of Saqqar." Since they are not indigenous to the area it would not follow that they would fashion themselves as being born of an ancient Egyptian god whose identity was unknown until the age of archaeology.
At Saqqara, the oldest complete stone building complex known in history was built: Djoser's step pyramid, built during the third dynasty. Another 16 Egyptian kings built pyramids at Saqqara, which are now in various states of preservation or dilapidation. High officials added private funeral monuments to this necropolis during the entire pharaonic period. It remained an important complex for non-royal burials and cult ceremonies for more than 3,000 years, well into Ptolemaic and Roman times.
North of the area known as Saqqara lies Abusir; south lies Dahshur. The area running from Gaza to Dahshur has been used as necropolis by the inhabitants of Memphis at different times, and it has been designated as a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 1979.[1]
Contrary to popular belief, the name Saqqara is not derived from the ancient Egyptian funerary god Sokar, but from the Beni Saqqar who are a local Berber tribe. Their name means "Sons of Saqqar." Since they are not indigenous to the area it would not follow that they would fashion themselves as being born of an ancient Egyptian god whose identity was unknown until the age of archaeology.
Giza Necropolis
The Giza Necropolis (Arabic: جيزة يسروبوليس) is an archaeological site on the Giza Plateau, on the outskirts of Cairo, Egypt. This complex of ancient monuments includes the three pyramid complexes known as the Great Pyramids, the massive sculpture known as the Great Sphinx, several cemeteries, a workers' village and an industrial complex. It is located some 9 km (5 mi) inland into the desert from the old town of Giza on the Nile, some 25 km (15 mi) southwest of Cairo city centre. The pyramids, which have always loomed large as emblems of ancient Egypt in the Western imagination,[1][2] were popularised in Hellenistic times, when the Great Pyramid was listed by Antipater of Sidon as one of the Seven Wonders of the World. It is by far the oldest of the ancient Wonders and the only one still in existence.The pyramids and the Sphinx
The Great Sphinx partially excavated, photo taken between 1867 and 1899
The Pyramids of Giza consist of the Great Pyramid of Giza (known as the Great Pyramid and the Pyramid of Cheops or Khufu), the somewhat smaller Pyramid of Khafre (or Chephren) a few hundred meters to the south-west, and the relatively modest-sized Pyramid of Menkaure (or Mykerinos) a few hundred meters further south-west. The Great Sphinx lies on the east side of the complex. Current consensus among Egyptologists is that the head of the Great Sphinx is that of Khafre. Along with these major monuments are a number of smaller satellite edifices, known as "queens" pyramids, causeways and valley pyramids.[3]
The Giza pyramids have been recorded in the Giza Plateau Mapping Project run by the Ancient Egypt Research Associates, directed by Dr. Mark Lehner. In addition, Lehner's team undertook radiocarbon dating on material recovered from the exterior of the Great Pyramid.[4] Aera's 2009 field season was recorded in a blog.[5]
[edit]
Khufu’s pyramid complex
Main articles: Great Pyramid of Giza and Khufu ship
Khufu’s pyramid complex consists of a Valley Temple, now buried beneath the village of Nazlet el-Samman; basalt paving and limestone walls have been found but the site has not been excavated.[6][7] The Valley Temple was connected to a causeway which was largely destroyed when the village was constructed. The Causeway led to the Mortuary Temple of Khufu. From this temple only the basalt pavement remains. The mortuary temple was connected to the king’s pyramid. The king’s pyramid has three smaller queen’s pyramids associated with it and five boat pits.[8] The boat pits contain a ship, and the two pits on the south side of the pyramid still contained intact ships. One of these ships has been restored and is on display. Khufu's Pyramid maintains a limited collection of casing stones at its base. These casing stones were made of fine white limestone quarried from the nearby Muqattam range.[3]
[edit]
Khafre’s pyramid complex
Main articles: Pyramid of Khafre and Great Sphinx of Giza
Khafre’s pyramid complex consists of a Valley temple (sometimes referred to as the Sphinx temple), a causeway, a mortuary temple and the king’s pyramid. The Valley Temple yielded several statues of Khafre. Several were found in a well in the floor of the temple by Mariette in 1860. Others were found during successive excavations by Sieglin (1909–10), Junker, Reisner, and Hassan. Khafre’s complex contained five boat-pits and a subsidiary pyramid with a serdab.[8] Khafre's Pyramid appears larger than the adjacent Khufu Pyramid by virtue of its more elevated location, and the steeper angle of inclination of its construction – it is, in fact, smaller in both height and volume. Khafre's Pyramid retains a prominent display of casing stones at its apex.[3]
[edit]
Menkaure’s pyramid complex
Main article: Pyramid of Menkaure
Menkaure’s pyramid complex consistes of a Valley Temple, a causeway, a mortuary temple, and the king’s pyramid. The Valley Temple contained several statues of Menkaure. During the 5th dynasty a smaller ante-temple was added on to the Valley temple. The Mortuary temple also yielded several statues of Menkaure. The king’s pyramid has three subsidiary or Queen’s pyramids.[8] Of the four major monuments, only Menkaure's Pyramid is seen today without any of its original polished limestone casing.[3]
[edit]
The Sphinx
Main article: Great Sphinx of Giza
The Sphinx dates to the reign of king Khafre.[9] A chapel was located between its forepaws. During the New Kingdom Amenhotep II dedicated a new temple to Hauron-Haremakhet and this structure was added onto by later rulers.[8]
[edit]
Tomb of Queen Khentkaues I
Main article: Khentkaus I
Khentkaus I was buried in Giza. Her tomb is known as LG 100 and G 8400 and is located in the Central Field, near the pyramid of Menkaure. The pyramid complex of Queen Khentkaus includes: her pyramid, a boat pit, a Valley Temple and a pyramid town.[8][10]
[edit]
Construction
Main article: Egyptian pyramid construction techniques
Most construction theories are based on the idea that the pyramids were built by moving huge stones from a quarry and dragging and lifting them into place. The disagreements center on the method by which the stones were conveyed and placed and how possible the method was. A recent though unpopular theory proposes that the building blocks were manufactured in-place from a kind of "limestone concrete".[11]
In building the pyramids, the architects might have developed their techniques over time. They would select a site on a relatively flat area of bedrock—not sand—which provided a stable foundation. After carefully surveying the site and laying down the first level of stones, they constructed the pyramids in horizontal levels, one on top of the other.
For the Great Pyramid of Giza, most of the stone for the interior seems to have been quarried immediately to the south of the construction site. The smooth exterior of the pyramid was made of a fine grade of white limestone that was quarried across the Nile. These exterior blocks had to be carefully cut, transported by river barge to Giza, and dragged up ramps to the construction site. Only a few exterior blocks remain in place at the bottom of the Great Pyramid. During the Middle Ages (5th century to 15th century) people may have taken the rest away for building projects in the city of Cairo.[3]
To ensure that the pyramid remained symmetrical, the exterior casing stones all had to be equal in height and width. Workers might have marked all the blocks to indicate the angle of the pyramid wall and trimmed the surfaces carefully so that the blocks fit together. During construction the outer surface of the stone was smooth limestone; excess stone has eroded as time has passed.[3]
[edit]
Purpose
The Pyramids of Giza and others are thought to have been constructed to house the remains of the deceased Pharaohs who ruled over Ancient Egypt.[3] A portion of the Pharaoh's spirit called his ka was believed to remain with his corpse. Proper care of the remains was necessary in order for the "former Pharaoh to perform his new duties as king of the dead." It's theorized the pyramid not only served as a tomb for the Pharaoh but also as storage for the various items he would need in the afterlife. "The people of Ancient Egypt believed that death on Earth was the start of a journey to the next world. The embalmed body of the King was entombed underneath or within the pyramid to protect it and allow his transformation and ascension to the afterlife."[12]
[edit]
Workers' village
The work of quarrying, moving, setting, and sculpting the huge amount of stone used to build the pyramids might have been accomplished by several thousand skilled workers, unskilled laborers and supporting workers. Bakers, carpenters, water carriers, and others were also needed for the project. Along with the methods utilized to construct the pyramids, there is also wide speculation regarding the exact number of workers needed for a building project of this magnitude. When Greek historian Herodotus visited Giza in 450 BC, he was told by Egyptian priests that "the Great Pyramid had taken 400,000 men 20 years to build, working in three-month shifts 100,000 men at a time." Evidence from the tombs indicates that a workforce of 10,000 laborers working in three month shifts took around 30 years to build a pyramid.[3]
The Giza pyramid complex is surrounded by a large stone wall, outside which Mark Lehner and his team have discovered a town where the workers on the pyramids were housed. This town is located to the southeast of the Khafre and Menkaure complexes. Among the discoveries at the worker's village are communal sleeping quarters, bakeries, breweries and kitchens (with evidence showing that bread, beef and fish were staples of the diet), a hospital and a cemetery (where some of the skeletons were found with signs of trauma associated with accidents on a building site).[13] The worker's town discovered appears to date to the middle 4th dynasty (2520–2472 BC), after the accepted time of Khufu and completion of the Great Pyramid. According to Mark Lehner and the AERA team;
"The development of this urban complex must have been quite rapid. All of the construction probably happened in the 35 to 50 years that spanned the reigns of Khafre and Menkaure, builders of the Second and Third Giza Pyramids".
Without carbon dating, using only pottery shards, seal impressions, and stratigraphy to date the site, the team further concludes;
"The picture that emerges is that of a planned settlement, some of the world's earliest urban planning, securely dated to the reigns of two Giza pyramid builders: Khafre (2520–2494 BC) and Menkaure (2490–2472 BC)".[14][15]
[edit]
Cemeteries
Giza pyramid complex (map)
Giza pyramid complex seen from above
As the pyramids were constructed the mastabas for lesser royals were constructed around them. Near the pyramid of Khufu the main cemetery is G 7000 which lies in the East Field located to the east of the main pyramid and next to the Queen’s pyramids. These cemeteries around the pyramids were arranged along streets and avenues.[16] Cemetery G 7000 was one of the earliest and contained tombs of wives, sons and daughters of these 4th dynasty rulers. On the other side of the pyramid in the West Field the royals sons Wepemnofret and Hemiunu were buried in Cemetery G 1200 and Cemetery G 4000 respectively. These cemeteries were further expanded during the 5th and 6th dynasty.[8]
[edit]
West Field
Main article: Giza West Field
The West Field is located to the west of Khufu’s pyramid. It is divided up into smaller areas such as the cemeteries referred to as the Abu Bakr Excavations (1949-50, 1950-1,1952 and 1953), and several cemeteries named based on the mastaba numbers such as Cemetery G 1000, Cemetery G 1100, etc. The West Field contains Cemetery G1000 – Cemetery G1600, and Cemetery G 1900. Further cemeteries in this field are: Cemeteries G 2000, G 2200, G 2500, G 3000, G 4000, and G 6000. Three other cemeteries are named after their excavators: Junker Cemetery West, Junker Cemetery East and Steindorff Cemetery.[8
The Great Sphinx partially excavated, photo taken between 1867 and 1899
The Pyramids of Giza consist of the Great Pyramid of Giza (known as the Great Pyramid and the Pyramid of Cheops or Khufu), the somewhat smaller Pyramid of Khafre (or Chephren) a few hundred meters to the south-west, and the relatively modest-sized Pyramid of Menkaure (or Mykerinos) a few hundred meters further south-west. The Great Sphinx lies on the east side of the complex. Current consensus among Egyptologists is that the head of the Great Sphinx is that of Khafre. Along with these major monuments are a number of smaller satellite edifices, known as "queens" pyramids, causeways and valley pyramids.[3]
The Giza pyramids have been recorded in the Giza Plateau Mapping Project run by the Ancient Egypt Research Associates, directed by Dr. Mark Lehner. In addition, Lehner's team undertook radiocarbon dating on material recovered from the exterior of the Great Pyramid.[4] Aera's 2009 field season was recorded in a blog.[5]
[edit]
Khufu’s pyramid complex
Main articles: Great Pyramid of Giza and Khufu ship
Khufu’s pyramid complex consists of a Valley Temple, now buried beneath the village of Nazlet el-Samman; basalt paving and limestone walls have been found but the site has not been excavated.[6][7] The Valley Temple was connected to a causeway which was largely destroyed when the village was constructed. The Causeway led to the Mortuary Temple of Khufu. From this temple only the basalt pavement remains. The mortuary temple was connected to the king’s pyramid. The king’s pyramid has three smaller queen’s pyramids associated with it and five boat pits.[8] The boat pits contain a ship, and the two pits on the south side of the pyramid still contained intact ships. One of these ships has been restored and is on display. Khufu's Pyramid maintains a limited collection of casing stones at its base. These casing stones were made of fine white limestone quarried from the nearby Muqattam range.[3]
[edit]
Khafre’s pyramid complex
Main articles: Pyramid of Khafre and Great Sphinx of Giza
Khafre’s pyramid complex consists of a Valley temple (sometimes referred to as the Sphinx temple), a causeway, a mortuary temple and the king’s pyramid. The Valley Temple yielded several statues of Khafre. Several were found in a well in the floor of the temple by Mariette in 1860. Others were found during successive excavations by Sieglin (1909–10), Junker, Reisner, and Hassan. Khafre’s complex contained five boat-pits and a subsidiary pyramid with a serdab.[8] Khafre's Pyramid appears larger than the adjacent Khufu Pyramid by virtue of its more elevated location, and the steeper angle of inclination of its construction – it is, in fact, smaller in both height and volume. Khafre's Pyramid retains a prominent display of casing stones at its apex.[3]
[edit]
Menkaure’s pyramid complex
Main article: Pyramid of Menkaure
Menkaure’s pyramid complex consistes of a Valley Temple, a causeway, a mortuary temple, and the king’s pyramid. The Valley Temple contained several statues of Menkaure. During the 5th dynasty a smaller ante-temple was added on to the Valley temple. The Mortuary temple also yielded several statues of Menkaure. The king’s pyramid has three subsidiary or Queen’s pyramids.[8] Of the four major monuments, only Menkaure's Pyramid is seen today without any of its original polished limestone casing.[3]
[edit]
The Sphinx
Main article: Great Sphinx of Giza
The Sphinx dates to the reign of king Khafre.[9] A chapel was located between its forepaws. During the New Kingdom Amenhotep II dedicated a new temple to Hauron-Haremakhet and this structure was added onto by later rulers.[8]
[edit]
Tomb of Queen Khentkaues I
Main article: Khentkaus I
Khentkaus I was buried in Giza. Her tomb is known as LG 100 and G 8400 and is located in the Central Field, near the pyramid of Menkaure. The pyramid complex of Queen Khentkaus includes: her pyramid, a boat pit, a Valley Temple and a pyramid town.[8][10]
[edit]
Construction
Main article: Egyptian pyramid construction techniques
Most construction theories are based on the idea that the pyramids were built by moving huge stones from a quarry and dragging and lifting them into place. The disagreements center on the method by which the stones were conveyed and placed and how possible the method was. A recent though unpopular theory proposes that the building blocks were manufactured in-place from a kind of "limestone concrete".[11]
In building the pyramids, the architects might have developed their techniques over time. They would select a site on a relatively flat area of bedrock—not sand—which provided a stable foundation. After carefully surveying the site and laying down the first level of stones, they constructed the pyramids in horizontal levels, one on top of the other.
For the Great Pyramid of Giza, most of the stone for the interior seems to have been quarried immediately to the south of the construction site. The smooth exterior of the pyramid was made of a fine grade of white limestone that was quarried across the Nile. These exterior blocks had to be carefully cut, transported by river barge to Giza, and dragged up ramps to the construction site. Only a few exterior blocks remain in place at the bottom of the Great Pyramid. During the Middle Ages (5th century to 15th century) people may have taken the rest away for building projects in the city of Cairo.[3]
To ensure that the pyramid remained symmetrical, the exterior casing stones all had to be equal in height and width. Workers might have marked all the blocks to indicate the angle of the pyramid wall and trimmed the surfaces carefully so that the blocks fit together. During construction the outer surface of the stone was smooth limestone; excess stone has eroded as time has passed.[3]
[edit]
Purpose
The Pyramids of Giza and others are thought to have been constructed to house the remains of the deceased Pharaohs who ruled over Ancient Egypt.[3] A portion of the Pharaoh's spirit called his ka was believed to remain with his corpse. Proper care of the remains was necessary in order for the "former Pharaoh to perform his new duties as king of the dead." It's theorized the pyramid not only served as a tomb for the Pharaoh but also as storage for the various items he would need in the afterlife. "The people of Ancient Egypt believed that death on Earth was the start of a journey to the next world. The embalmed body of the King was entombed underneath or within the pyramid to protect it and allow his transformation and ascension to the afterlife."[12]
[edit]
Workers' village
The work of quarrying, moving, setting, and sculpting the huge amount of stone used to build the pyramids might have been accomplished by several thousand skilled workers, unskilled laborers and supporting workers. Bakers, carpenters, water carriers, and others were also needed for the project. Along with the methods utilized to construct the pyramids, there is also wide speculation regarding the exact number of workers needed for a building project of this magnitude. When Greek historian Herodotus visited Giza in 450 BC, he was told by Egyptian priests that "the Great Pyramid had taken 400,000 men 20 years to build, working in three-month shifts 100,000 men at a time." Evidence from the tombs indicates that a workforce of 10,000 laborers working in three month shifts took around 30 years to build a pyramid.[3]
The Giza pyramid complex is surrounded by a large stone wall, outside which Mark Lehner and his team have discovered a town where the workers on the pyramids were housed. This town is located to the southeast of the Khafre and Menkaure complexes. Among the discoveries at the worker's village are communal sleeping quarters, bakeries, breweries and kitchens (with evidence showing that bread, beef and fish were staples of the diet), a hospital and a cemetery (where some of the skeletons were found with signs of trauma associated with accidents on a building site).[13] The worker's town discovered appears to date to the middle 4th dynasty (2520–2472 BC), after the accepted time of Khufu and completion of the Great Pyramid. According to Mark Lehner and the AERA team;
"The development of this urban complex must have been quite rapid. All of the construction probably happened in the 35 to 50 years that spanned the reigns of Khafre and Menkaure, builders of the Second and Third Giza Pyramids".
Without carbon dating, using only pottery shards, seal impressions, and stratigraphy to date the site, the team further concludes;
"The picture that emerges is that of a planned settlement, some of the world's earliest urban planning, securely dated to the reigns of two Giza pyramid builders: Khafre (2520–2494 BC) and Menkaure (2490–2472 BC)".[14][15]
[edit]
Cemeteries
Giza pyramid complex (map)
Giza pyramid complex seen from above
As the pyramids were constructed the mastabas for lesser royals were constructed around them. Near the pyramid of Khufu the main cemetery is G 7000 which lies in the East Field located to the east of the main pyramid and next to the Queen’s pyramids. These cemeteries around the pyramids were arranged along streets and avenues.[16] Cemetery G 7000 was one of the earliest and contained tombs of wives, sons and daughters of these 4th dynasty rulers. On the other side of the pyramid in the West Field the royals sons Wepemnofret and Hemiunu were buried in Cemetery G 1200 and Cemetery G 4000 respectively. These cemeteries were further expanded during the 5th and 6th dynasty.[8]
[edit]
West Field
Main article: Giza West Field
The West Field is located to the west of Khufu’s pyramid. It is divided up into smaller areas such as the cemeteries referred to as the Abu Bakr Excavations (1949-50, 1950-1,1952 and 1953), and several cemeteries named based on the mastaba numbers such as Cemetery G 1000, Cemetery G 1100, etc. The West Field contains Cemetery G1000 – Cemetery G1600, and Cemetery G 1900. Further cemeteries in this field are: Cemeteries G 2000, G 2200, G 2500, G 3000, G 4000, and G 6000. Three other cemeteries are named after their excavators: Junker Cemetery West, Junker Cemetery East and Steindorff Cemetery.[8
Ancient Egypt
Ancient Egypt was an ancient civilization of Northeastern Africa, concentrated along the lower reaches of the Nile River in what is now the modern country of Egypt. Egyptian civilization coalesced around 3150 BC (according to conventional Egyptian chronology)[1] with the political unification of Upper and Lower Egypt under the first pharaoh.[2] The history of ancient Egypt occurred in a series of stable Kingdoms, separated by periods of relative instability known as Intermediate Periods. The Old Kingdom of the Early Bronze Age, the Middle Kingdom of the Middle Bronze Age and the New Kingdom of the Late Bronze Age. Egypt reached the pinnacle of its power during the New Kingdom, in the Ramesside period, after which it entered a period of slow decline. Egypt was conquered by a succession of foreign powers in this late period. In the aftermath of Alexander the Great's death, one of his generals, Ptolemy Soter, established himself as the new ruler of Egypt. This Ptolemaic Dynasty ruled Egypt until 30 BC, when it fell to the Roman Empire and became a Roman province.[3]
The success of ancient Egyptian civilization came partly from its ability to adapt to the conditions of the Nile River Valley. The predictable flooding and controlled irrigation of the fertile valley produced surplus crops, which fueled social development and culture. With resources to spare, the administration sponsored mineral exploitation of the valley and surrounding desert regions, the early development of an independent writing system, the organization of collective construction and agricultural projects, trade with surrounding regions, and a military intended to defeat foreign enemies and assert Egyptian dominance. Motivating and organizing these activities was a bureaucracy of elite scribes, religious leaders, and administrators under the control of a Pharaoh who ensured the cooperation and unity of the Egyptian people in the context of an elaborate system of religious beliefs.[4][5]
The many achievements of the ancient Egyptians include the quarrying, surveying and construction techniques that facilitated the building of monumental pyramids, temples, and obelisks; a system of mathematics, a practical and effective system of medicine, irrigation systems and agricultural production techniques, the first known ships,[6] Egyptian faience and glass technology, new forms of literature, and the earliest known peace treaty.[7] Egypt left a lasting legacy. Its art and architecture were widely copied, and its antiquities carried off to far corners of the world. Its monumental ruins have inspired the imaginations of travellers and writers for centuries. A new-found respect for antiquities and excavations in the early modern period led to the scientific investigation of Egyptian civilization and a greater appreciation of its cultural legacy.[8
The success of ancient Egyptian civilization came partly from its ability to adapt to the conditions of the Nile River Valley. The predictable flooding and controlled irrigation of the fertile valley produced surplus crops, which fueled social development and culture. With resources to spare, the administration sponsored mineral exploitation of the valley and surrounding desert regions, the early development of an independent writing system, the organization of collective construction and agricultural projects, trade with surrounding regions, and a military intended to defeat foreign enemies and assert Egyptian dominance. Motivating and organizing these activities was a bureaucracy of elite scribes, religious leaders, and administrators under the control of a Pharaoh who ensured the cooperation and unity of the Egyptian people in the context of an elaborate system of religious beliefs.[4][5]
The many achievements of the ancient Egyptians include the quarrying, surveying and construction techniques that facilitated the building of monumental pyramids, temples, and obelisks; a system of mathematics, a practical and effective system of medicine, irrigation systems and agricultural production techniques, the first known ships,[6] Egyptian faience and glass technology, new forms of literature, and the earliest known peace treaty.[7] Egypt left a lasting legacy. Its art and architecture were widely copied, and its antiquities carried off to far corners of the world. Its monumental ruins have inspired the imaginations of travellers and writers for centuries. A new-found respect for antiquities and excavations in the early modern period led to the scientific investigation of Egyptian civilization and a greater appreciation of its cultural legacy.[8
Pyramides d'Égypte
Les pyramides d'Égypte, de tous les vestiges monumentaux que nous ont légués les Égyptiens de l'Antiquité, et notamment les trois grandes pyramides de Gizeh, sont à la fois les plus impressionnantes et les plus emblématiques de cette civilisation.
Si elle fut, à son origine, destinée au roi, l'idée d'une sépulture pyramidale fut rapidement reprise par les proches du souverain. Khéops semble avoir été le premier à autoriser ses femmes à se faire élever un tel tombeau.
Tombeaux des rois, des reines et des grands personnages de l'État, dont l'édification remonte pour la grande majorité à l'Ancien Empire, la forme pyramidale de pierre accueille une ou plusieurs chambres internes reliées par des couloirs.
La grande pyramide de Gizeh, construite par Khéops, fait partie des sept merveilles du monde antiq
Si elle fut, à son origine, destinée au roi, l'idée d'une sépulture pyramidale fut rapidement reprise par les proches du souverain. Khéops semble avoir été le premier à autoriser ses femmes à se faire élever un tel tombeau.
Tombeaux des rois, des reines et des grands personnages de l'État, dont l'édification remonte pour la grande majorité à l'Ancien Empire, la forme pyramidale de pierre accueille une ou plusieurs chambres internes reliées par des couloirs.
La grande pyramide de Gizeh, construite par Khéops, fait partie des sept merveilles du monde antiq
Des mastabas aux pyramides
Le mastaba, construction quasi rectangulaire, était la sépulture des souverains de l'Ancien Empire.
Les raisons du passage des mastabas aux pyramides ne sont pas clairement établies, mais on évoque généralement le souhait d'atteindre des hauteurs de plus en plus considérables pour manifester l'importance et la puissance du pharaon défunt. Les premiers mastabas, à étage unique, ont tout d'abord évolué vers des mastabas à deux étages permettant d'accueillir de nouvelles structures funéraires, le second étage étant moins large et moins haut que le premier.
Au début de la IIIe dynastie (vers -2700 à -2600), les mastabas sont devenus des pyramides dites à degrés, constituées de plusieurs étages successifs. La première et la plus célèbre de ces pyramides à degrés est la pyramide de Djéser à Saqqarah, dont l'architecte était Imhotep. Imhotep voulut ériger une pyramide à degrés s'élevant tel un escalier gigantesque vers le ciel afin de symboliser l'ascension du défunt du « monde souterrain » vers les « Cieux ».L'étape suivante de l'évolution des pyramides à degrés fut l'édification par le roi Snéfrou d'une « pyramide rhomboïdale » sur le site de Dahchour. La pyramide rhomboïdale est une étape intermédiaire entre la pyramide à degrés et la pyramide à faces lisses. La pyramide rhomboïdale est une pyramide dont les faces lisses constituent une pente à sections d'inclinaisons décroissantes en direction du sommet. La non-uniformité de cette pente pourrait s'expliquer par des difficultés architecturales et par l'instabilité de la maçonnerie de la pyramide.La pyramide à degrés : pyramide en forme d'escalier, à l'origine une superposition de mastabas de bases différentes. Par exemple, la pyramide de Djéser comporte six gradins pour une hauteur de 60 mètres et une base de 109 mètres x 121 mètres. Les tranches de maçonnerie, inclinées de 16° par rapport à la verticale, font 2,60 mètres de hauteur.
La pyramide rhomboïdale : pyramide à deux plans inclinés, l’un partant du bas jusqu’au milieu de l’édifice (58° de pente), l’autre allant vers la pointe (43° 22’). Cette rupture de pente serait due à une erreur d’appréciation des architectes.
La pyramide à pente droite : pyramide à quatre parois droites, recouvertes de calcaire très fin leur donnant un aspect lisse. Celles de Gizeh représentent la perfection en la matière. La pyramide de Khéops atteignait 146 mètres de hauteur (actuellement 138 mètres) pour une base de 230 mètres et une pente de 51° 50’. Celle de Khéphren a une pente de 53° pour une hauteur de 143,50 mètres et une base de 215 mètres. Quant à celle de Mykérinos, elle mesurait 66 mètres de hauteur pour une base de 105 mètres et une pente de 51° 20’.
La pyramide en forme de sarcophage : malgré certaines inscriptions les désignant comme des pyramides, ces mausolées n’en sont pas d'un point de vue strictement géométrique.
مر
Les raisons du passage des mastabas aux pyramides ne sont pas clairement établies, mais on évoque généralement le souhait d'atteindre des hauteurs de plus en plus considérables pour manifester l'importance et la puissance du pharaon défunt. Les premiers mastabas, à étage unique, ont tout d'abord évolué vers des mastabas à deux étages permettant d'accueillir de nouvelles structures funéraires, le second étage étant moins large et moins haut que le premier.
Au début de la IIIe dynastie (vers -2700 à -2600), les mastabas sont devenus des pyramides dites à degrés, constituées de plusieurs étages successifs. La première et la plus célèbre de ces pyramides à degrés est la pyramide de Djéser à Saqqarah, dont l'architecte était Imhotep. Imhotep voulut ériger une pyramide à degrés s'élevant tel un escalier gigantesque vers le ciel afin de symboliser l'ascension du défunt du « monde souterrain » vers les « Cieux ».L'étape suivante de l'évolution des pyramides à degrés fut l'édification par le roi Snéfrou d'une « pyramide rhomboïdale » sur le site de Dahchour. La pyramide rhomboïdale est une étape intermédiaire entre la pyramide à degrés et la pyramide à faces lisses. La pyramide rhomboïdale est une pyramide dont les faces lisses constituent une pente à sections d'inclinaisons décroissantes en direction du sommet. La non-uniformité de cette pente pourrait s'expliquer par des difficultés architecturales et par l'instabilité de la maçonnerie de la pyramide.La pyramide à degrés : pyramide en forme d'escalier, à l'origine une superposition de mastabas de bases différentes. Par exemple, la pyramide de Djéser comporte six gradins pour une hauteur de 60 mètres et une base de 109 mètres x 121 mètres. Les tranches de maçonnerie, inclinées de 16° par rapport à la verticale, font 2,60 mètres de hauteur.
La pyramide rhomboïdale : pyramide à deux plans inclinés, l’un partant du bas jusqu’au milieu de l’édifice (58° de pente), l’autre allant vers la pointe (43° 22’). Cette rupture de pente serait due à une erreur d’appréciation des architectes.
La pyramide à pente droite : pyramide à quatre parois droites, recouvertes de calcaire très fin leur donnant un aspect lisse. Celles de Gizeh représentent la perfection en la matière. La pyramide de Khéops atteignait 146 mètres de hauteur (actuellement 138 mètres) pour une base de 230 mètres et une pente de 51° 50’. Celle de Khéphren a une pente de 53° pour une hauteur de 143,50 mètres et une base de 215 mètres. Quant à celle de Mykérinos, elle mesurait 66 mètres de hauteur pour une base de 105 mètres et une pente de 51° 20’.
La pyramide en forme de sarcophage : malgré certaines inscriptions les désignant comme des pyramides, ces mausolées n’en sont pas d'un point de vue strictement géométrique.
مر
Pyramid Texts
The Pyramid Texts are a collection of ancient Egyptian religious texts from the time of the Old Kingdom. The pyramid texts are possibly the oldest known religious texts in the world.[1][2] Written in Old Egyptian, the pyramid texts were carved on the walls and sarcophagi of the pyramids at Saqqara during the 5th and 6th Dynasties of the Old Kingdom. The oldest of the texts have been dated to between ca. 2400-2300 BC.[3] Unlike the Coffin Texts and Book of the Dead into which parts of the pyramid texts later evolved, the pyramid texts were reserved only for the pharaoh and were not illustrated.[4] Following the earlier Palermo Stone, the pyramid texts mark the next-oldest known mention of Osiris, who would become the most important deity associated with afterlife in the Ancient Egyptian religion.[5]
The spells, or "utterances", of the pyramid texts are primarily concerned with protecting the pharaoh's remains, reanimating his body after death, and helping him ascend to the heavens, which are the emphasis of the afterlife during the Old Kingdom. The spells delineate all of the ways the pharaoh could travel, including the use of ramps, stairs, ladders, and most importantly flying. The spells could also be used to call the gods to help, even threatening them if they did not comply.[6]
The spells, or "utterances", of the pyramid texts are primarily concerned with protecting the pharaoh's remains, reanimating his body after death, and helping him ascend to the heavens, which are the emphasis of the afterlife during the Old Kingdom. The spells delineate all of the ways the pharaoh could travel, including the use of ramps, stairs, ladders, and most importantly flying. The spells could also be used to call the gods to help, even threatening them if they did not comply.[6]
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